Pear (Pyrus Communis) and Benefits

Sweet, delicious and rich flavored pears offer crunchiness of apples yet juicy as peach and nectarine. They are widely popular, particularly in the whole of the northern hemisphere, for their unique nutrient qualities.

Botanically, it is a "pome fruit” produced in the Rosaceae family of trees, in the Pyrus genus. Pome fruit plants are an average sized trees found in semi-tropical regions around the northern hemisphere. They bear medium-size fruits that characteristically have several small seeds at its center encased in tough coat. The members of pome family fruits include apple, loquat, quince, medlar...etc.

Scientific name: Pyrus communis

Types of Pears:

Pears are classified into Asian pears and European pears. Asian pear varieties have a firm texture, which does not change after harvesting or storage. European pears turn soft and juicy when they ripen completely. There are almost 3000 varieties of pears found across the world. Some of the most common varieties of pears include:

Bosc: It is a cinnamon brown colored pear, with a long, tapered neck and honey-like flavor.

Bartlett: Bartlett is considered the best variety of pear. It comes in colors like yellow and green.

Comice: Comice is a round, short pear with red or green colorings. It has a soft and juicy flesh.

Forelle: Forelle is a green pear and is speckled like a trout. It is a small-sized pear which turns yellow as it ripens.

Green Anjou: Green Anjou is a short-necked and compact pear which doesn’t change color while ripening.

Red Anjou: Red Anjou, as the name indicates, is rich red in color. This variety of pear has high amounts of anthocyanin in it.

Red Bartlett: Red Bartlett is bright red in color with brown vertical stripes.

Seckel: Seckel is the smallest variety of pear available. It is usually yellow or olive green in color with broad red patches.

Starkrimson: Starkrimson is a narrow-necked pear, which is bright crimson red in color. This variety of pear looks amazing in salads.

Health Benefits of Pear Fruit:

The humble fruit is packed with tons of health benefits. Some of the most popular pear health benefits include:

1. Mental Health:

A medium-sized pear provides about 15 percent of our daily recommended copper requirement. Copper is an essential mineral required for a healthy central nervous system. The copper ions affect the component that is responsible for making the neural synapses stronger or weaker. This change affects our ability to learn and remember. The antioxidant, quercetin, found in pears also protects us from Alzheimer’s disease.

2. Antioxidants:

The skin of the pear comprises of more phenolic phytonutrients than the flesh. These include antioxidants, anti-inflammatory flavonoids and even anti-cancer phyto-nutrients like cinnamic acid. Antioxidants prevent infection and keep the immune system strong. It also protects the cells from the damage caused by free radicals.

3. Vitamin K:

Vitamin K in pears prevents blood clotting and improves blood circulation in the body. A study has found that the risk of developing lymphoma was around 45% lower in people who regularly consumed high amounts of Vitamin K.

4. Cancer:

The health benefits of pear extend into the area of cancer risk as well. Fiber in pear binds together with a special group of secondary bile acids. Excessive amounts of secondary bile acid can increase the risk of colorectal cancer. By binding together with the secondary bile acids, pears help to lower the risk of cancer. The hydroxycinnamic acid found in pears prevents lung and stomach cancer. Quercetin, an antioxidant found in the skin of pears, also prevents cancer.

5. Macular Degeneration:

Eating three or more servings of pear daily lowers the risk of macular degeneration, the primary cause of vision loss in elderly people.

6. Heart health:

Pears are a good source of glutathione, an antioxidant, which controls high blood pressure and reduces the risk of strokes. It contains potassium, a mineral, which maintains the health of the heart. Quercetin also prevents artery damage that can cause heart disease. The high levels of pectin in pears lower cholesterol in the body.

7. Anti-inflammatory:

Pears contain phytonutrients, which are known to have anti-inflammatory properties. The anti-inflammatory properties are very beneficial for relieving stomach pain and other common chronic inflammations.

8. Fiber:

Pear is one of the best fiber-rich foods. A medium-sized pear provides up to 30 grams of fiber, including pectin, which helps in toning the intestines and lowering the cholesterol levels. A high fiber diet prevents a bloated belly caused by constipation, while preventing painful hemorrhoids. Fiber also helps to absorb vitamins and minerals from the food.

9. Diabetes:

Certain flavonoids found in pear improve insulin sensitivity in the body. This decreases the risk of type 2 diabetes in both men and women. Therefore, consuming pears fro diabetes helps.

10. Bone Health:

Pears contain boron, a mineral which aids the body to retain calcium. The fruit may, therefore, help in preventing osteoporosis.

11. Folate:

Folate is an essential mineral required for the well-being of the fetus and pregnant women. It prevents neural tube defects in infants. Thus, it is advisable for pregnant women to eat one pear daily during their pregnancy.

12. Throat:

The anti-inflammatory properties of pears help to clear the phlegm from the body for the proper functioning of our respiratory organs. Boil two Chinese pears with raw honey and drink this while warm to soothe the throat and vocal cords. Drink pear juice twice daily to prevent further throat problems.

Skin Benefits of Pear Fruit:

13. Treats Acne, Pimples & Other Skin Infections:

Pears are recommended for the treatment of acne due to the high amounts of vitamins and minerals in it. This fruit boosts the immunity system and enables the skin to fight against acne, pimples and other skin infections.

14. Indirectly Keeps Skin Smooth & Supple:

Pears are full of fiber, a nutrient which prevents fluctuation of sugar spikes. Sugar spikes can damage collagen, a protein that keeps the skin smooth and supple.

15. Regulates Skin’s pH Balance:

You can use pears in the form of a face pack for oily skin. Add a teaspoon of honey and one teaspoon of whipped cream to a mashed pear. Apply the mixture on the face and neck, and wash it off after 15 minutes. The minerals present in pears neutralize skin acids and help in regulating the pH balance of the skin.

Hair Benefits of Pear Fruit:

16. Nourishes, Scalp, Hair Roots & Follicles:

Pears contain several hair-friendly nutrients, which are beneficial for maintaining the health of the hair. Ripe pears contain natural sugar called glucitol, which nourishes the scalp, feeds the hair roots and keeps the hair follicles hydrated.

17. Treats Dandruff & Scalp Psoriasis:

The moisturizing properties of pears are useful for reducing the dryness of the scalp. This keeps dandruff, scalp psoriasis and flaking at bay.

18. For Shiny & Smooth Hair:

You can also prepare a natural hair mask for treating dull and dry hair. Mix the extract of one ripe pear with two tablespoons of apple cider vinegar and water. Apply this hair mask on the scalp and hair, half an hour before shampooing. Wash it off to witness shiny and smooth hair.

Samanea Saman Greenfield Rain Tree

Monkey-pod (Pithecellobium saman), samán in Spanish, is a fast-growing tree that has been introduced to many tropical countries throughout the world from its native habitats in Central America and northern South America. Although generally planted as a shade tree and ornamental, it has been naturalized in many countries and is greatly valued in pastures as shade for cattle. Short-boled, with a spreading crown when open grown, it forms a long, relatively straight stem when closely spaced. Its wood is highly valued in some locations for carvings and furniture.

The most widely used common name for the species is rain tree, from the belief that the tree produces rain at night. The leaflets close up at night or when under heavy cloud cover, allowing rain to pass easily through the crown. This trait may contribute to the frequently observed fact that grass remains green under the trees in times of drought. However, the shading effect of the crown, the addition of nitrogen to the soil by decomposition of litter from this leguminous tree, and possibly, the sticky droppings of cicada insects in the trees all contribute to this phenomenon . The Hawaiian common name, monkey-pod, is used here because it is a logical derivation of the scientific name Pithecellobium (monkey earring in Greek). Besides monkey-pod, rain tree, and saman, which is its name throughout Latin America, the tree is called mimosa in the Philippines.

Germination Tips 

Step 1 :

Fill a pot with water that equals five times the seed volume and bring it to a boil on a stove. Check the temperature of the water with a cooking thermometer, and when it reaches 176 degrees Fahrenheit, remove the pot from the stove. 

Step 2:

Place the monkey pod tree seeds in the hot water and stir them for up to two minutes with a spoon before draining the liquid. 

Step 3:

Fill a bowl with lukewarm water that's between 86 and 104 degrees Fahrenheit and soak the seeds in it for 24 hours. This pre-treatment is called scarification and alters the hard seed coat, which increases the chances of uniform germination. 

Step 4:

Fill a pot with moist seed-starting mix up to 1 inch from the top, place the seed on top of the surface and cover it with a 1/2-inch layer of the mix. Tamp down lightly and moisten the surface with a water-filled spray bottle to avoid washing away the seed. 

step 5:

Cover tightly  plastic polythene wrap over the pot to promote soil moisture retention and place it in a dimly lit area of the house. Lift the plastic daily to check that the soil is moist. If not, lightly moisten it with a water-filled spray bottle before replacing the plastic. Expect germination within three to five days. 

Step 6:

Remove the plastic as soon as the seedlings emerge, and gradually move the pot to a brighter area over a two-week period so that at the end of that time they're acclimated to being in full sunlight. 

Step 7:

Transplant the seedlings outside to an area with full sun and well-draining soil after three to five months, when the seedlings are about 8 to 12 inches tall. 

Your Requires

Pot 

Cooking thermometer 

Spoon 

Bowl 

Seed-starting mix 

Spray bottle 

Plastic wrap

Tomato Fusarium Wilt

If your tomato plants wilted and yellow on one side of the plant or one side of a leaf, they have Fusarium wilt. Fusarium wilt on tomatoes caused by Fusarium oxysporumsp. lycopersici. It is a fungus soilborn found in the United States, especially in hot regions of the country. The organism is specific to tomato and many longlived in all regions of the United States. The disease develops rapidly in soils that are high in nitrogen and low in potassium. In addition, plants grown in sandy soil tends to contract the disease more often.

Symptoms

Wilting is the most characteristic symptom of infection by Verticillium spp. Symptoms usually appear on the lower leaves in mid-August when infected plants wilt during the warmest part of the day, and then recover at night. Leaf edges and areas between the veins turn yellow and then brown. In addition, infected plants often have a characteristic V-shaped lesion at the edge of the leaf occurring in a fan pattern. These foliar lesions can enlarge, resulting in complete browning and death of the leaves.

Verticillium wilt can be detected by looking for the presence of vascular streaking in stems near the ground. When cut longitudinally, Verticillium-infected stems show a light tan discoloration of the vascular tissue (Figure 1).

Fig - 1

These symptoms are similar to those caused by another fungus, Fusarium, but vascular streaking caused by Fusarium is generally darker and progresses further up the stem than streaking caused by Verticillium. Infected potato tubers may also show similar vascular discoloration occurring in rings, especially near the stem end (Figure 2). Although discolored, the tubers are safe to eat.

Fig 2

Wilt caused by this disease may be differentiated from drought-stress based on the portion of the plant that is wilting and on the location of wilted plants. Diseased plants often have only a portion of the plant wilting, such as one or two stems (Figure 3). 

Fig 3

In addition, diseased plants usually appear in patches within the growing area (Figure 4). Plants suffering from drought, however, are uniformly wilted and occur throughout the growing area.

Fig 4

Life Cycle

The fungi causing this disease overwinter in the soil as mycelium or on plant debris as microsclerotia. The fungi infect a susceptible host through wounds in the roots caused by cultivation, nematodes (microscopic worms), or the formation of secondary roots. This disease is considered a cool-weather disease, developing between 65° and 83°F.

Management

Because Fusarium and Verticillium fungi are widespread and persist several years in soil, a long crop rotation (4 to 6 years) is necessary to reduce populations of these fungi. Avoid using any solanaceous crop (potato, tomato, pepper, eggplant) in the rotation, and if Verticillium wilt is a problem, also avoid the use of strawberries and raspberries, which are highly susceptible. Rotate with cereals and grasses wherever possible.

Keep rotational crops weed-free (there are many weeds hosts of Verticillium).

Whenever practical, remove and destroy infested plant material after harvest.

Maintain a high level of plant vigor with appropriate fertilization and irrigation, but do not over-irrigate, especially early in the season.

Plant disease resistant tomato varieties, labeled V (for Verticillium) and F (for Fusarium). These disease resistance designations are usually shown in seed catalogues. Fusarium- or Verticillium-resistant varieties of eggplant, potato, and pepper are generally not available.

If soils are severely infested, production of solanaceous crops may not be possible unless soil fumigation is an option. See the Ohio Vegetable Production Guide (OSU Extension Bulletin No. 672) for information on soil fumigation.

Petunias & Petunia, Wave Hybrids Germination,Cultivation, Growing

Petunia x hybrida WAVE

Solanaceae Family

Wave Petunias are a popular group of hybrids valued for their large, colorful blooms and unique creeping growing habit. Spreading up to 4 feet, these plants add huge mats of color to gardens and containers. Unlike most petunias, these bloom without getting leggy by midseason. 

Origin : 

The species was first sent from South America to Paris in 1823. It was discovered in South America by the explorer James Tweedie, (after whom the genus Tweedia is named), who sent specimens to the Glasgow Botanical Garden in 1831. Most of the varieties seen in gardens are hybrids (Petunia x hybrida), they were among the first ornamentals to be bred for the bedding plant market in the 1950s.

• Characteristics :

Sunlight: full sun

Soil conditions : requires well-drained soil

Prefers moist but well-drained soil.

Special locations:outdoor containers,xeriscapes

•  Plant Traits

Lifecycle: annual

Ease-of-care: easy

Height: 0.66 to 1 feet

Spread: 1 to 4 feet

Bloom time:

1.     early summer
2.     mid-summer
3.     late summer
4.     early fall
5.     mid-fall

Flower color:

    violet

    white

    pink

Flowers are up to 4” wide and trumpet-shaped.

Foliage color: medium green

Foliage texture: medium

Shape: spreading mass

Shape in flower: same as above

Special characteristics:

•     non-aggressive
•     non-invasive
•     not native to North America - Hybrid with South American parents.

Growing Information

How to plant:

Propagate by seed - Sow the seeds indoors 10 to 12 weeks before the last spring frost, leaving the seeds uncovered as light aids germination. Pre-started petunias are readily available at retail outlets.

Germination temperature: 80 F

Days to emergence: 7 to 10

Maintenance and care :

Wave hybrids don't need deadheading or cutting back like many other petunias. Fertilize every two weeks until midsummer. 

Pests:

 Parasitic nematodes 

Diseases:

•     Oedema
•     Powdery mildew
•     Botrytis blight
•     Sclerotinia stem rot
•     Viral diseases 

Sowing :

To sow seeds in the house, from February 8 to 10 weeks before the last frost. Petunias bloom in the morning and covered with flowers are stunning. They like the sun and often bloom within two months from seed and continue throughout the season until killed by the frost. They are easily cultivated, requiring rich soil and full sun. They grow best in high-moisture areas with well-drained soils, but can adapt to most soil types. For Established the plants need  less maintenance require dry weather than other plants.

Seed 6 mm (¼ inch) apart in rows 7 cm (3 inches) mm, that's for sure stand (especially the corners), so it is not eaten with irrigation. Do not cover the seed, as the seeds need light to germinate. 

Provide light and constant warmth of 21 to 27°C (70 to 80°F)   respectively. In fact, the heat source from bottom to the use of the best results . F2 hybrids tend at the end of the previous germinate much better at about 27c (80f).  F2 hybrids tend to germinate better at the higher end, at around 27C (80F). The soil temp should not fluctuate and must not drop below 21°C (70°F). Finely mist and cover seed tray with plastic or paper to conserve moisture.

Need to check the compost for dryness regularly.  Add a little warm clean water from below, if this is the case, being careful not to over water. Dont use too much water ,can die seedlings, as it can spread "damping off fungi", and encourage other moulds and diseases.  

Germination :

Usually seed takes 10 to 21 days for germination and it depending on soil and temperature conditions. After sprout the seeds remove cover as soon as possible. Keep moist but do not use cold water as it lowers the soil temp and weakens tender seedlings.

Transplant and grow on in cooler conditions, around 13 to 16°C (55 to 60°F) for stocky plants when seedlings are large enough to handle.  Acclimatize to outdoor conditions for 10 to 15 days before planting out after all risk of frost, 30cm (12in) apart in a sunny spot on light well drained soil. For pot plants, transplant the seedlings into 7.5cm (3in) pots, grow cool, well ventilated and give plenty of light, but shade from direct sun.

Cultivation :

When plants are 5 to 10cm (2 to 4in) tall, and ground is warm, transplant to their final positions in pots or into the garden, spacing 20 to 30cm (8 to12in) apart. Plant should be  a full sun location. They will tolerate light shade but blooming will be reduced. Use a low-nitrogen/high-phosphorus fertilizer sparingly. Do not overwater or over fertilize, Overwatering will  kill the plants. 

After planting into baskets, when established give them a good spray from a watering can. The weight of the water flow will produce a perfect cascading habit.

Pinch or shear when 15cm (6in) tall and keep faded flowers picked, for denser plants and more flowers, 

Petunias are sticky and will attract greenfly so keep an eye on them. Don't over water in the winter and keep them well ventilated.

Site and soil :

The most important requirement for growing petunias successfully is a location with plenty of light. Petunias need at least five or six hours of good sunlight; they'll perform even better when located in full sun all day. The more shade they receive, the fewer flowers they'll produce. Impatiens are a better choice for blooming in shady places.

While soil needn't be terribly rich to grow good petunias, it must drain decently. It's always useful to improve garden soil by conditioning it with organic matter, such as baled peat moss, well-rotted leaf compost or manure.

Spread the organic matter two to three inches thick. Then incorporate it into the soil to a depth of eight to ten inches, using a rototiller or garden fork. This helps open up heavy clay soil, which improves drainage, but can also increase the ability of light, sandy soil to hold moisture and nutrients.

Fertilizer and water :

Work a balanced fertilizer such as 8-8-8, 10-10-10, or 12-12-12 into garden soil at a rate of two pounds per hundred square feet. Later--early to mid-July--begin to use liquid fertilizer every three weeks (weekly for "spreading" petunias). Once the plants have begun to spread, it will be much easier to water this solution into the soil than to side dress with dry fertilizer.

Incorporate timed-release fertilizer into the soil when planting window boxes or other containers. Otherwise fertilize regularly every two weeks with a liquid fertilizer meant specially for flowering plants. ("Spreading" types require weekly fertilizing.)

For a fertilizer recommendation tailor made to your specific garden conditions, have an accurate soil test run. Contact your local County Extension office or the Soil Testing Lab at the University of Minnesota for information.

Petunias tolerate lots of heat, and are relatively undemanding when it comes to water. Except for "spreading" types, which require frequent watering, thorough watering once a week should be sufficient in all but the worst weather. Leave sprinklers on long enough to soak the soil to a depth of six to eight inches every time you water. Hanging baskets and other containers also need more frequent watering, perhaps as often as daily, depending on their size and the volume of soil they contain.

Plant Uses : 

Window boxes, containers, tubs, hanging baskets and pot plants. 

How to Plant Flowers from Root Divisions (Perennials Only)

While the beginning of a flower from seed, transplanting from cuttings can be used for both annual and perennial flowers, only perennial plants can be propagated by root divisions.

Plant root sections have two purposes:

1.  It reinvigorates the flowering perennials currently in your garden, producing fuller plants and more flowers.

Why would remove a plant from the ground and cut its roots help rather than hurt it?

All year growth of a perennial says it continues to develop new roots and new shoots sprout. All those new parts of the plant to compete for the same water, sunlight and nutrients, so that each member gets proportionally less of it needs as time goes on. The distribution of the roots and replanting them allow each part of the now larger root system it needs to flourish get.

2. Free plants - Since each plant's root system some several times can be divided, it will give additional plants no extra cost.

Do not want to expand your flower garden? Share a neighbor! No neighbors? Add the extra compost heap.

In general, perennial flowering plants should be divided every three years, but there are exceptions. Rather than setting a division schedule, it might be better to take your plants and they split when all signs began to appear:

• Weaker or smaller tribes
• Fewer flowers
• Yellow or light green stems or leaves
• Plant begins to die at the center of forest

To divide the roots ...

1. Wait until it blossomed into the plant when your climate is cool and wet - usually in spring or autumn. This will vary from region and the perennial you share. If in the autumn, give the roots at least two months to repair themselves before the ground freezes.
2. Prepare the planting site ahead of time to the time of land to a minimum. The hole should be two times bigger than the original root system with a little seaweed fertilizer liquid is added to the hole in preparation for the new resident.
3. The plant water the day before you cut it.
4. Cut overhead grows to about 6 inches (15 cm) above the ground.
5. When digging the planting, keep the root ball together by digging with a shovel about a foot (30 cm) to the base of the plant and prying it from the bottom.
6. When drag it out of the ground, NOT shake any land.
7. Divide the roots based on the type of root system (indicated for each plant in our Flower Growing Guide):

• Planted - compact root system with shoots that emerge from buds to the original crown. Use a shovel or machete to cut the crown in as many pieces as you want, but be sure each piece has at least a few buds attached.
• Spread - roots are relatively shallow, spreading away from the original crown and is separate from the original crown with a partially separate root system. Just pull each individual root system apart with your hands.
• Rhizome - very thick stems that spread away from the original plant (Ginger is a rhizome). Use a knife to divide them into sections, each with a few bumps.
• Root tubers - a "modified lateral root" that was converted to a food storage organ (a yam is a tuber). They serve nutrients for plants using storage off-season.

8.  Plant the divisions serve with the crown just above its previous level above the ground.

9.  Water and beat down the ground to the point that there is probably no underground holes remaining. The level of the crown above the ground now at the point of the original plant.

10.  Keep the soil moist consistently for at least the next few weeks.

How to Plant Flowers by Transplanting

Transplant refers to taking a pre-mature planting and replanting it in your garden.

When purchasing plants for transplanting, look for the following characteristics:

• General "healthy looking" plants
• White and "fleshy" roots (as opposed to brown roots) that the container fill
• Dark green leaves
• Plants without full of flowers (they will be much better a few weeks after planting seems)

When transplanting flowers ...

• Do as early as possible in the spring after all danger of frost passes
• Harden off your flowers - Flowers bought for transplanting tar nurtured in a greenhouse because they were seeds, and they need to gradually be introduced to the harder outside environment before going into the ground. This process is known as "hardening off plants."

Hard on your flowers:

• Day 1 - Let them out for 4 hours in the sun levels guidelines each plant (ie the sun, partial shade, full shade) match
• Day 2 - Let them out for 6 hours
• Day 3 - Leave them outside for 8 hours
• Day 4 - Transplant in your garden or flower bed

1. The day before transplant, watering the plants with about an inch (2.5 cm) of water
2. Just before you are ready to plant, remove the soil from the container some with roots and soil structure left intact. If there are several flowers growing in the tray, cut the ground between the plants for removing each plant.
3. If the roots tightly around the ground some make several shallow cuts around encouraging the forest to the roots to grow out into the soil
4. Lightly wet the hole before transplanting to the point that it consistently moist (about the texture of a wrung-out sponge)
5. Plant at a depth corresponding to the depth of the plant when it was in the container (same goes for planting peat pots ... puts the whole peat pot in the ground so that the ground level of the peat pot matches the ground Garden's)
6. After placing the wood in the soil, packing the surrounding soil around the bush then fertilize with a liquid organic fertilizer.
7. Until established (at least a few weeks), keep the plants well watered to the point that the surrounding soil remains consistently moist.

Crown Gall Disease and Treatment

Crown gall is a plant disease caused by the soil-occupied bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The bacterium causes abnormal growths or galls on roots, twigs and branches of Euonymus shrubs and other mainly in the rose family. The bacteria stimulate the rapid growth of plant cells that lead to the galls. In addition to being unsightly, weaken the galls and hamper the growth of the plant. Although galls the flow of water and nutrients to the roots and branches can disrupt, they usually do not total plant death. The disease can spread to other susceptible plants through contaminated soil and tools. Most chemical treatments are not effective.

The galls on forsythia, viburnum, high bush blueberry American elm, HICKORY, maple, oak, and privet believed to be caused by a fungus, Phomopsis sp. Since its cultural controls are the same as for bacterial crown gall, both discussed herein. Chemical treatments will differ. Chemical treatments for both are of very limited value to the home gardener. Only those associated with bacterial crown gall is addressed.

Symptoms

Crown gall first appears as small overgrowths on the stem (trunk), crown, and roots – usually near the soil line, frequently at a graft union (Figure 1). On plants such as poplar and willow, the galls may appear on branches that are several feet above the ground. At first, the gall or tumor is white or flesh-colored, more or less round, and quite soft and spongy. The enlarging gall gradually develops an irregular, convoluted, rough, corky surface and a hard woody interior. The outer tissue gradually darkens. The galls may vary from pea-size to more than a foot in diameter and may weigh 50 pounds. Gall tissue gradually rots from secondary organisms. Tumors develop again in the same places the following year, or part of the gall may decay and slough off, with new tumor tissue developing in other parts of the same gall. On some host plants, secondary tumors develop at points several inches above or below the primary gall.

When the infection is severe, infected plants lack vigor, their leaves are stunted and may turn yellow or red, and the shoots often die back. As the galls continue to enlarge, plants may wilt and die.

Disease Cycle

Once introduced, the crown-gall bacterium overseasons in diseased tissue and in soil, where it lives as a saprophyte in organic debris for several years. The bacterium is spread in soil water or by rainsplash, and thus infects new plants.

Penetration occurs only through fresh wounds (less than 24 hours old). The wounds can be made during pruning, cultivating, transplanting, and budding or grafting. Wounds may also be caused by chewing insects, nematodes, or other animal pests. After entry, the bacteria multiply in the intercellular spaces and stimulate a rapid increase in plant cell division and an abnormal enlargement of the surrounding plant cells. In warm weather, when the host plant is growing rapidly, a small enlargement can often be seen 10 to 14 days after infection. As the rapid and irregular division and enlargement of host cells continues, the normal differentiation of cells within the tumorous growth decreases. This results in incomplete and disorganized water- and food-conducting tissues. When a gall is unable to obtain enough water and food to maintain itself, the enlargement ceases, decay commonly begins, and the outer, dead tissues slough away. The breakdown of the outer tumor tissues releases crown-gall bacteria back into the soil, where they can be carried in the water to infect new plants.

The crown-gall bacterium produces a tumor-inducing principle (TIP), a bacterial Ti-plasmid DNA (T-DNA), that is transferred and incorporated into wounded host cells, altering their hormonal balance. Normal plant cells are converted into tumorous cells, which are induced to manufacture more TIP and pass it on to their daughter cells. These daughter cells continue to enlarge and divide in an uncontrolled manner – free of the crown-gall bacteria. Strains or physiologic races of the crown-gall bacterium differ in virulence and host range; hence, the type and amount of tumor tissue that develops differs.

Control

1. Plant only certified, disease-free nursery stock that has a smooth graft union and is free of suspicious overgrowths or enlargements on the roots and stems. Budding, rather than grafting, reduces the chance of infection.

2. Carefully dig up and destroy all severely infected plants, especially woody ones.

3. Do not replant the same type of plant in the same spot for at least five years. Corn, small grains, grasses, onions, asparagus, and cowpea are immune.

4. Dip tools used for grafting, budding, and pruning in liquid household bleach between cuts. Prepare a fresh solution several times each day, using one part of bleach mixed with four parts of clean water.

5. Treat seeds, seedlings, cuttings, and bare-root plants. Excellent control of most strains of the crown gall bacterium has been obtained by soaking germinated seeds and dipping or spraying nursery seedlings, cuttings, or bare-root rootstock plants in a suspension of a nonpathogenic (or antagonistic) bacterium: strain 84 of Agrobacterium radiobacter, registered by EPA and available commercially as Galltrol-A sold by AgBioChem, Inc., 3 Fleetwood Court, Orinda, CA 94563. The nonpathogenic bacterium colonizes wounds, such as those made by root prunings, and thus prevents certain strains of the crown-gall organism from infecting the wounds.

6. Use resistant rootstocks. Peach rootstock S-37, certain Malling rootstocks for apple, and Japanese apricot (Prunus mume) are resistant to crown gall.

7. Sterilize the soil in greenhouses with steam (180 F or 82 C for at least 30 minutes at the coolest spot) or a soil fumigant such as methyl bromide, Vorlex, or chloropicrin, after first removing all woody roots and stems. If using a soil fumigant, carefully follow all the manufacturer's directions and precautions.

8. Avoid wounding plants while transplanting, cultivating, and mowing.

9. Protect roses, boxwood, young trees, and other susceptible plants against winter injury. Follow local recommendations. Fertilize and water properly to keep the plants vigorous.

10. Control chewing insects. Follow the recommendations of Extension Entomologists at the University of Illinois. This may mean treating the soil with an insecticide, as well as spraying or dusting the plants at appropriate times.
11. Sterilize the soil. Soils known to be infected with crown gall bacteria can be sterilized using chemicals, heat, or antibiotics. This is not practical for most home gardeners. A biological control has been introduced using a bacterium, Agrobacterium radiobactor strain 84. This bacterium was discovered to be antagonistic to crown gall bacterium. It is available for use as a preplant treatment by dipping nursery stock in a suspension of the live bacteria in water.

Making Your Own Cactus Soil

Soil Mixes

Commercial Packaged Soil Mixes

Custom Soil Mixes

Amendments

Soil Collapse

Acidifying Soil

Commercial Packaged Soil Mixes

Potting Soil

Regular commercial potting soils vary from company to company, but the problem with most is that they hang on to too much water for too long a time for most cacti and succulents. Most commercial potting soils are manufactured for plants that have lush growth and vigorous roots and as a result, tend to use water more quickly than most cacti and succulents. Fortunately, there are amendments that can be added to commercial potting soils to help make them more porous and thus cacti and succulent friendly.

Some potting soils contain peat or sphagnum moss which can cause problems for cacti as peat moss breaks down over time, compacting the soil. If at all possible, try to get a potting soil that doesn't contain peat or sphagnum moss.

Cactus Potting Soil

Commercial cactus potting soils are made to be fast draining and help take the guesswork out for someone who is new to the hobby and is reluctant to try their making their own mix. I've tried a lot of different brands and can say that the only one I don't care for is the one made by Kellogg. I used it for a season with not so good results. Over the course of the following growing season, any plant that was in their soil was repotted with different soil. Uni-Gro, Black Magic, and E.B. Stone are commercial soils I like to use with my plants. I mix extra perlite into all of them to help them drain a little more.

Custom Soil Mixes

Note: The mixes below were taken from a flyer freely available to Sacramento Cactus and Succulent Society members. And 'yes', after bad mouthing peat and sphagnum moss, some of them call for peat and sphagnum moss. Not everyone shares my view about not using peat or sphagnum moss.

50-50 Soil Mix

50% regular potting soil mixed with 50% perlite. (The key to this mix is getting a potting soil that does not contain peat or sphagnum moss.)

Arboretum Soil Mix

30% redwood compost

30% horticultural sand

15% peat

15% scoria

10% perlite

University of California Succulent Mix

1 part ground sphagnum peat moss

1 part redwood compost

1 part horticultural sand

2 parts volcanic pumice

for every one cubic foot of mix add:

5 tablespoons dolomite limestone

2 tablespoons gypsum

3 tablespoons superphosphate

1 teaspoon potassium nitrate

1/2 teaspoon potassium sulfate

Amendments

Perlite

Horticultural perlite is the end product of a process that is transformed from natural perlite. Detailed information about the manufacture of perlite can be found at perlite.net.

Perlite is my choice for making a faster draining soil mix. It is an inexpensive and effective way to go when aeration of soil is needed. It is very light meaning that it won't weigh down a pot. Typically, mixing one part potting soil (or cactus potting soil) and one part perlite serves most of my needs.

Be aware that perlite can have a lot of dust in it. If there are a lot of fine, dusty particles, consider taking a colander and sifting out the very fine grains. If too much fine grained perlite is added to a potting mix, it will act to fill in the air spaces between the soil particles and may cause an amended potting mix to hold more water than just potting soil alone. Whenever using perlite, DO NOT breathe the dust.

Pumice

Pumice is a product of volcanic activity where tiny gas bubbles in lava cannot escape before the lava cools. It's similar to perlite in that it acts to loosen up a soil mix, but unlike perlite, it is mined, processed, and sold in its natural state. It is somewhat heavier than perlite, a little bit harder to find, and tends to cost a little more, but it quite suitable in aerating a potting soil.

The most likely place to find pumice is at a nursery, but it might also be found at a local feed store. It goes by the name of Dry Stall and is used in horse stalls so that horses have some sort of traction underneath them. I've used it as an amendment and like it.

Note: Some growers get passionate about perlite versus pumice. Some swear that perlite, because it's so light, will "float" to the top of a pot after repeated waterings. I've found that a well-mixed soil with perlite works just fine and if there's any "floating" of perlite to the top, it happens during watering where some perlite may move its way to the top because it is so light in comparison to the water and other potting materials. For me, perlite is a bit easier to find than pumice.

Red Lava Rock

Click to view larger image Red lava rock seems to be on par with pumice. The speckles of red lava rock around the base of a plant actually add a nice visual effect to a plant and pot. One drawback to using it is finding it. The only place I've been able to find it in my area is a local rock and gravel company called Cascade Rock.

Horticultural Sand

Horticultural sand is a fancy name for large grain sand. Large grain sand is better than small grain sand for extra drainage. The smaller grains will tend to fill in spaces between potting soil particles and may act to hold onto more water rather than let it pass through. Large grain sands tend to be located near cement products at your local hardware store, so look for it there if you don't see it in the garden section. Note that sand will make a potted plant heavier to tote around.

Peat Moss

Peat moss is good at aerating soil, but it breaks down relatively quickly and its texture changes as it does. In my experience, any concentration of peat in a potting mix break down to the point where the soil in a pot can become a solid, unworkable mass over time. In addition to being unworkable, the soil is hard to rehydrate if it's allowed to dry out completely. Yet another problem that can happen is when the soil dries, it can shrink and pull away from the sides of the pot. So unless plants soaked in a shallow pan or bucket, much of the water will run down the sides of the pot and out the bottom meaning the plant won't get a lot of water. The one saving grace of peat is that it is fantastic for seedlings and cuttings where it's likely plants will be repotted after a short period of time.

Coconut Coir

Coconut coir is the shredded husk of a coconut. It can be used as a soil amendment in place of peat moss. Unlike peat moss however, coir doesn’t break down quickly nor does it have a rehydration issue if it gets completely dry. Peat moss breaks down relatively fast and can actually repel water if it gets too dry.

After reading about adeniums and a few growers having success using coir as an amendment, I decided to give it a try. As of this writing (8/2014), the adeniums that were planted in the mix are doing no better and no worse than those in the other soil mix I use. The coir mix for adeniums I’m testing out consists of one part coir, one part perlite, and one part potting soil (one made without either peat or sphagnum moss). The mix I’ve used for other adeniums consisted of one part cactus potting soil with two parts perlite. There was nothing wrong with the original mix, I just wanted to see if there was a difference with some coir added in. One thing I did notice when I watered for the first time is that the water goes right through the pot. In other words, it’s a more “airy”, looser mix. Time will tell whether or not this is going to work for my adeniums. Just for kicks, I planted a few epiphyllum cuttings into the mix to see how they do.

I found a brick of compressed coir at a local nursery. Hydrating it loosened it up and made for quite a bit of product when the process was done.

On a side note, many small nursery succulent or cactus plants will be sold in containers that are pure peat moss. In August 2014, I bought my first haworthia that was planted in 100% coconut coir.

Soil Collapse

Potting soils are composed of mostly organic materials that were likely composted to some degree before they were bagged and priced. Composting is the breakdown of organic matter by a combination of moisture and micro-organisms. Composting continues at a slower pace while potting soil is in a pot, but the breakdown of organic material does continue. This can present a problem for plants that are in the same potting soil for several years (10+ years), fewer years for potting soils that have peat or sphagnum moss in it. For someone planning to repot every few years it's not an issue, because fresh soil resets the clock on breakdown. But when a mature plant doesn't require repotting for several years, any potting soil or cactus potting soil may cause problems for a grower because the organic component of it may have broken too much. When a potting soil breaks down aeration goes down and moisture retention goes up even if the potting soil has been amended with pumice, perlite, etc.

If you have older plants that won't require repotting for several years, contact a Cactus and Succulent Society about a soil mix that will stand the test of time.

Acidifying Soil

Cactus tend to like their soil a little on the acidic side. This came to light when a commercial grower (who lives about 35 miles from my location) mentioned that he acidifies his water with a touch of distilled vinegar. It appears that the groundwater in this part of California (I'm on a well) is on the alkaline side meaning that eventually the soil in pots will tend toward the alkaline side with each watering.

pH is measured on a scale of 1 to 14 with 1 being an extremely harsh acid and 14 being an extremely harsh alkaline. 7 is considered neutral. With the pH of my groundwater on the alkaline side (near 8), my cactus plants apparently aren't getting the nutrients they need because they were being bound up by the properties of an alkaline environment. The thought is that a touch of acidity in the vinegar-water mixture should free up nutrients for plants to use, and with any luck plants that like slightly acidic conditions will appear to be happier for it. An added benefit of the repeated application of acidic water is the decrease of hard water mineral deposits on pots and plants. To this nursery growers credit, my cactus did perk up. However, a lot of the succulents hated it, especially the stapelias (and the orbeas and huernias). Over the course of a growing season when I started to apply vinegar laced water, they went slowly downhill and it wasn't until I went back to giving them straight water that they started to perk back up. So be aware of what it's doing to your plants if you decide to acidify the water.

Generally speaking, applying a mixture of two tablespoons of vinegar to five gallons of water should suffice in helping acidify soil in pots. If you want to know where you stand in regard to your water's pH, then test the water. Hydroponics stores offer small test kits that cost less than $10 and it's what I used to test my water. Keep in mind that too much vinegar in the mix can lead to a hostile environment for plant roots because it's too acidic. In fact, the roots could burn so try to keep the pH between 5 and 7.